or more about infinitives without to, see 277...
Pokaż mi serce nie opętane zwodniczymi marzeniami, a pokażę ci człowieka szczęśliwego.
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participle). ed hy a
You should have told me you were coming.
I think I may have annoyed Aunt Mary. For details of these uses, see the entries on particular modal verbs
f Modal verbs have contracted negative forms (can't, won't etc) which used in an informal style. (Shan't
and mayn't are only used in British ^re r mayn't is very rare.) Will and would also have contracted
affirmative f n ^ ('II, 'd). For details, see 144. Some modals have both 'strong' and 'weair'"118
pronunciations. For details, see 588.
g There is quite often used as a preparatory subject with modal verbs especially when these are followed
by be (see 562). There may be rain later today.
3 meanings
We do not normally use modal verbs to say that situations definitely exist or that particular events have
definitely happened. We use them, for examole to talk about things which we expect, which are or are not
possible, which we think are necessary, which we want to happen, which we are not sure about which
tend to happen, or which have not happened.
He may arrive any time.
She could be in London or Paris or Tokyo - nobody knows.
I can't swim.
I think you ought to see a lawyer.
We really must tidy up the garden.
What wouldyou do if you had a free year?
Edinburgh can be very cold in winter.
I think they should have consulted a doctor earlier.
You might have told me Frances was ill.
For further general information about the meanings of modal auxiliary verbs, see next section. For more
detailed information, see the sections for each verb.
•5 modal auxiliary verbs: meanings
1 two kinds of meaning
Most of the meanings of modal verbs can be divided into two groups. One is to do with degrees of
certainty: modal verbs can be used to say for instance that a situation is certain, probable, possible or
impossible. The other is to with obligation, freedom to act and similar ideas: modal verbs can be used o
say that somebody is obliged to do something, that he / she is able to do something, that there is nothing
to stop something happening, that it wou be better if something happened (or did not), or that something is
perrni or forbidden.
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' iiluucu av
2 degrees of certainty
Modal verbs can express various degrees of certainty about a fact or an event.
complete certainty (positive or negative)
I shall be away tomorrow. It won't rain this evening.
I shan't be late on Tuesday. You must be tired.
There's the phone. That'll be Tony. That can't be John - he's in Dublin.
Things will be all right. I knew it couldn't be John.
Thev knelt in front of the child who would one day rule all England.
I told you you wouldn't be ready in time.
b probability/possibility
She should /ought to be here soon.
It shouldn't / oughtn't to be difficult to get there.
We may be buying a new house.
The water may not be warm enough to swim.
c weak probability
I might see you again - who knows? Things might not be as bad as they seem. We could all be
millionaires one day.
d theoretical or habitual possibility
How many people can get into a telephone box?
New England can be very warm in September.
Small children may have difficulty in understanding abstract ideas.
e conditional certainty or possibility
If we had enough time, things would be easy.
I wouldn't do this if I didn't have to.
If John came we could all go home.
I couldn't do anything without your help.
If you stopped criticising I might get some work done.
It mightn't be a bad thing if we took a short holiday.
3 obligation and freedom to act
Modal verbs can express various aspects of obligation and freedom. These uses of modal verbs are very
important in the polite expression of requests, suggestions, invitations and instructions.
a strong obligation
Students must register at the tutorial office in the first week of term. All sales staffwill arrive for work by
8.40a.m. Need I get a visa for Hungary?
b Prohibition
Students must not use the staff car park.
Books may not be taken out of the library.
^u can't come in here. ^
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,,,...,^-.»»...M. wwm ».mm«uy »ciua. meanings tJe
c weak obligation; recommendation
yoy should try to work harder. She really ought to wash her hai That child had better start saying thank-
youfor things. You might see what John thinks. What shall we do?
d willingness, volunteering, resolving, insisting and offering If you will come this way...
I should be grateful if you would let me know your decision as soon as possible.
I'll pay for the drinks. I'll definitely work harder next term. She will keep interrupting people. Shall I give you
a hand?
e permission
Can I borrow your keys? May we use the phone? Do you think I might take a break now?
f absence of obligation
You needn't work this Saturday.
g ability
She can speak six languages.
Note that obligation, permission etc are usually seen from the speaker's point of view in statements and
the hearer's in questions. Compare:
- You must go and see Ann. (I think it is necessary.)
Must you go and see Ann? (Do you think it is necessary?)
- You can borrow my car. (.1 give permission.)
Can I borrow your car? (Will you give permission?)
4 other meanings
Besides the meanings discussed in paragraphs 2 and 3, will and would are used to talk about habitual
behaviour (see 600,604).
Most evenings he'll just sit in front of the TVandgo to sleep.
When we were kids, my mum would take us out on bikes all round
the countryside.
Used to + infinitive (see 577) is similar to a modal verb structure in some ways. It is used to talk about
habitual behaviour and (unlike would) habitual states.
/ used to play a lot of tennis when I was younger.
The grass used to look greener when I was a child.
(NOT -The grass would look greener when I was a child:)
5 subject-independence
An interesting, rather complicated point about modal verbs is that their meaning usually 'spreads over' a
whole clause. This means that one can change a modal structure from active to passive, for example,
without affecting the meaning very much. Compare:
- A child could understand his theory. His theory could be understood by a child.
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You mustn't put adverbs between the verb and the object.
Adverbs mustn't be put between the verb and the object.
Dogs may chase cats.
Cats may get chased by dogs.
With most other verbs that are followed by infinitives, their meaning is attached to the subject, so that a